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INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF FRESHWATER
2003
Agenda 21 and Fresh Water
PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES:
APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT,
MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES
18.1. Freshwater
resources are an essential component of the Earth's hydrosphere
and an indispensable part of all terrestrial ecosystems. The
freshwater environment is characterized by the hydrological
cycle, including floods and droughts, which in some regions have
become more extreme and dramatic in their consequences. Global
climate change and atmospheric pollution could also have an
impact on freshwater resources and their availability and,
through sea-level rise, threaten low-lying coastal areas and
small island ecosystems.
18.2. Water is
needed in all aspects of life. The general objective is to make
certain that adequate supplies of water of good quality are
maintained for the entire population of this planet, while
preserving the hydrological, biological and chemical functions
of ecosystems, adapting human activities within the capacity
limits of nature and combating vectors of water-related
diseases. Innovative technologies, including the improvement of
indigenous technologies, are needed to fully utilize limited
water resources and to safeguard those resources against
pollution.
18.3. The
widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated
pollution of freshwater resources in many world regions, along
with the progressive encroachment of incompatible activities,
demand integrated water resources planning and management. Such
integration must cover all types of interrelated freshwater
bodies, including both surface water and groundwater, and duly
consider water quantity and quality aspects. The multisectoral
nature of water resources development in the context of
socio-economic development must be recognized, as well as the
multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply
and sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development,
hydropower generation, inland fisheries, transportation,
recreation, low and flat lands management and other activities.
Rational water utilization schemes for the development of
surface and underground water-supply sources and other potential
sources have to be supported by concurrent water conservation
and wastage minimization measures. Priority, however, must be
accorded to flood prevention and control measures, as well as
sedimentation control, where required.
18.4. Transboundary
water resources and their use are of great importance to
riparian States. In this connection, cooperation among those
States may be desirable in conformity with existing agreements
and/or other relevant arrangements, taking into account the
interests of all riparian States concerned.
18.5. The following
programme areas are proposed for the freshwater sector:
- Integrated
water resources development and management;
- Water
resources assessment;
- Protection of
water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems;
- Drinking-water
supply and sanitation;
- Water and
sustainable urban development;
- Water for
sustainable food production and rural development;
- Impacts of
climate change on water resources.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A.
Integrated water resources development and management
Basis for action
18.6. The extent to
which water resources development contributes to economic
productivity and social well-being is not usually appreciated,
although all social and economic activities rely heavily on the
supply and quality of freshwater. As populations and economic
activities grow, many countries are rapidly reaching conditions
of water scarcity or facing limits to economic development.
Water demands are increasing rapidly, with 70-80 per cent
required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent for industry and
a mere 6 per cent for domestic consumption. The holistic
management of freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource,
and the integration of sectoral water plans and programmes
within the framework of national economic and social policy, are
of paramount importance for action in the 1990s and beyond. The
fragmentation of responsibilities for water resources
development among sectoral agencies is proving, however, to be
an even greater impediment to promoting integrated water
management than had been anticipated. Effective implementation
and coordination mechanisms are required.
Objectives
18.7. The overall
objective is to satisfy the freshwater needs of all countries
for their sustainable development.
18.8. Integrated
water resources management is based on the perception of water
as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and a
social and economic good, whose quantity and quality determine
the nature of its utilization. To this end, water resources have
to be protected, taking into account the functioning of aquatic
ecosystems and the perenniality of the resource, in order to
satisfy and reconcile needs for water in human activities. In
developing and using water resources, priority has to be given
to the satisfaction of basic needs and the safeguarding of
ecosystems. Beyond these requirements, however, water users
should be charged appropriately.
18.9. Integrated
water resources management, including the integration of land-
and water-related aspects, should be carried out at the level of
the catchment basin or sub-basin. Four principal objectives
should be pursued, as follows:
- To promote a
dynamic, interactive, iterative and multisectoral approach
to water resources management, including the identification
and protection of potential sources of freshwater supply,
that integrates technological, socio-economic, environmental
and human health considerations;
- To plan for
the sustainable and rational utilization, protection,
conservation and management of water resources based on
community needs and priorities within the framework of
national economic development policy;
- To design,
implement and evaluate projects and programmes that are both
economically efficient and socially appropriate within
clearly defined strategies, based on an approach of full
public participation, including that of women, youth,
indigenous people and local communities in water management
policy-making and decision-making;
- To identify
and strengthen or develop, as required, in particular in
developing countries, the appropriate institutional, legal
and financial mechanisms to ensure that water policy and its
implementation are a catalyst for sustainable social
progress and economic growth.
18.10. In the case
of transboundary water resources, there is a need for riparian
States to formulate water resources strategies, prepare water
resources action programmes and consider, where appropriate, the
harmonization of those strategies and action programmes.
18.11. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
set the following targets:
- To have
designed and initiated costed and targeted national action
programmes, and to have put in place appropriate
institutional structures and legal instruments;
- To have
established efficient water-use programmes to attain
sustainable resource utilization patterns;
- To have
achieved subsectoral targets of all freshwater programme
areas.
It is understood
that the fulfilment of the targets quantified in (i) and (ii)
above will depend upon new and additional financial resources
that will be made available to developing countries in
accordance with the relevant provisions of General Assembly
resolution 44/228.
Activities
18.12. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
implement the following activities to improve integrated water
resources management:
- Formulation of
costed and targeted national action plans and investment
programmes;
- Integration of
measures for the protection and conservation of potential
sources of freshwater supply, including the inventorying of
water resources, with land-use planning, forest resource
utilization, protection of mountain slopes and riverbanks
and other relevant development and conservation activities;
- Development of
interactive databases, forecasting models, economic planning
models and methods for water management and planning,
including environmental impact assessment methods;
- Optimization
of water resources allocation under physical and
socio-economic constraints;
- Implementation
of allocation decisions through demand management, pricing
mechanisms and regulatory measures;
- Flood and
drought management, including risk analysis and
environmental and social impact assessment;
- Promotion of
schemes for rational water use through public
awareness-raising, educational programmes and levying of
water tariffs and other economic instruments;
- Mobilization
of water resources, particularly in arid and semi-arid
areas;
- Promotion of
international scientific research cooperation on freshwater
resources;
- Development of
new and alternative sources of water-supply such as
sea-water desalination, artificial groundwater recharge, use
of marginal-quality water, waste-water reuse and water
recycling;
- Integration of
water (including surface and underground water resources)
quantity and quality management;
- Promotion of
water conservation through improved water-use efficiency and
wastage minimization schemes for all users, including the
development of water-saving devices;
- Support to
water-users groups to optimize local water resources
management;
- Development of
public participatory techniques and their implementation in
decision-making, particularly the enhancement of the role of
women in water resources planning and management;
- Development
and strengthening, as appropriate, of cooperation, including
mechanisms where appropriate, at all levels concerned,
namely:
- At the
lowest appropriate level, delegation of water resources
management, generally, to such a level, in accordance with
national legislation, including decentralization of
government services to local authorities, private
enterprises and communities;
- At the
national level, integrated water resources planning and
management in the framework of the national planning
process and, where appropriate, establishment of
independent regulation and monitoring of freshwater, based
on national legislation and economic measures;
- At the
regional level, consideration, where appropriate, of the
harmonization of national strategies and action programmes;
- At the
global level, improved delineation of responsibilities,
division of labour and coordination of international
organizations and programmes, including facilitating
discussions and sharing of experiences in areas related to
water resources management;
- Dissemination
of information, including operational guidelines, and
promotion of education for water users, including the
consideration by the United Nations of a World Water Day.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and
cost evaluation
18.13. The
Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $115 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative
and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed
by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any
that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.
(b) Scientific and
technological means
18.14. The
development of interactive databases, forecasting methods and
economic planning models appropriate to the task of managing
water resources in an efficient and sustainable manner will
require the application of new techniques such as geographical
information systems and expert systems to gather, assimilate,
analyse and display multisectoral information and to optimize
decision-making. In addition, the development of new and
alternative sources of water-supply and low-cost water
technologies will require innovative applied research. This will
involve the transfer, adaptation and diffusion of new techniques
and technology among developing countries, as well as the
development of endogenous capacity, for the purpose of being
able to deal with the added dimension of integrating
engineering, economic, environmental and social aspects of water
resources management and predicting the effects in terms of
human impact.
18.15. Pursuant to
the recognition of water as a social and economic good, the
various available options for charging water users (including
domestic, urban, industrial and agricultural water-user groups)
have to be further evaluated and field-tested. Further
development is required for economic instruments that take into
account opportunity costs and environmental externalities. Field
studies on the willingness to pay should be conducted in rural
and urban situations.
18.16. Water
resources development and management should be planned in an
integrated manner, taking into account long-term planning needs
as well as those with narrower horizons, that is to say, they
should incorporate environmental, economic and social
considerations based on the principle of sustainability; include
the requirements of all users as well as those relating to the
prevention and mitigation of water-related hazards; and
constitute an integral part of the socio-economic development
planning process. A prerequisite for the sustainable management
of water as a scarce vulnerable resource is the obligation to
acknowledge in all planning and development its full costs.
Planning considerations should reflect benefits investment,
environmental protection and operation costs, as well as the
opportunity costs reflecting the most valuable alternative use
of water. Actual charging need not necessarily burden all
beneficiaries with the consequences of those considerations.
Charging mechanisms should, however, reflect as far as possible
both the true cost of water when used as an economic good and
the ability of the communities to pay.
18.17. The role of
water as a social, economic and life-sustaining good should be
reflected in demand management mechanisms and implemented
through water conservation and reuse, resource assessment and
financial instruments.
18.18. The setting
afresh of priorities for private and public investment
strategies should take into account (a) maximum utilization of
existing projects, through maintenance, rehabilitation and
optimal operation; (b) new or alternative clean technologies;
and (c) environmentally and socially benign hydropower.
(c) Human resources
development
18.19. The
delegation of water resources management to the lowest
appropriate level necessitates educating and training water
management staff at all levels and ensuring that women
participate equally in the education and training programmes.
Particular emphasis has to be placed on the introduction of
public participatory techniques, including enhancement of the
role of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities.
Skills related to various water management functions have to be
developed by municipal government and water authorities, as well
as in the private sector, local/national non-governmental
organizations, cooperatives, corporations and other water-user
groups. Education of the public regarding the importance of
water and its proper management is also needed.
18.20. To implement
these principles, communities need to have adequate capacities.
Those who establish the framework for water development and
management at any level, whether international, national or
local, need to ensure that the means exist to build those
capacities. The means will vary from case to case. They usually
include:
-
Awareness-creation programmes, including mobilizing
commitment and support at all levels and initiating global
and local action to promote such programmes;
- Training of
water managers at all levels so that they have an
appropriate understanding of all the elements necessary for
their decision-making;
- Strengthening
of training capacities in developing countries;
- Appropriate
training of the necessary professionals, including extension
workers;
- Improvement of
career structures;
- Sharing of
appropriate knowledge and technology, both for the
collection of data and for the implementation of planned
development including non-polluting technologies and the
knowledge needed to extract the best performance from the
existing investment system.
(d)
Capacity-building
18.21.
Institutional capacity for implementing integrated water
management should be reviewed and developed when there is a
clear demand. Existing administrative structures will often be
quite capable of achieving local water resources management, but
the need may arise for new institutions based upon the
perspective, for example, of river catchment areas, district
development councils and local community committees. Although
water is managed at various levels in the socio-political
system, demand-driven management requires the development of
water-related institutions at appropriate levels, taking into
account the need for integration with land-use management.
18.22. In creating
the enabling environment for lowest-appropriate-level
management, the role of Government includes mobilization of
financial and human resources, legislation, standard-setting and
other regulatory functions, monitoring and assessment of the use
of water and land resources, and creating of opportunities for
public participation. International agencies and donors have an
important role to play in providing support to developing
countries in creating the required enabling environment for
integrated water resources management. This should include, as
appropriate, donor support to local levels in developing
countries, including community-based institutions,
non-governmental organizations and women's groups.
B.
Water resources assessment
Basis for action
18.23. Water
resources assessment, including the identification of potential
sources of freshwater supply, comprises the continuing
determination of sources, extent, dependability and quality of
water resources and of the human activities that affect those
resources. Such assessment constitutes the practical basis for
their sustainable management and a prerequisite for evaluation
of the possibilities for their development. There is, however,
growing concern that at a time when more precise and reliable
information is needed about water resources, hydrologic services
and related bodies are less able than before to provide this
information, especially information on groundwater and water
quality. Major impediments are the lack of financial resources
for water resources assessment, the fragmented nature of
hydrologic services and the insufficient numbers of qualified
staff. At the same time, the advancing technology for data
capture and management is increasingly difficult to access for
developing countries. Establishment of national databases is,
however, vital to water resources assessment and to mitigation
of the effects of floods, droughts, desertification and
pollution.
Objectives
18.24. Based upon
the Mar del Plata Action Plan, this programme area has been
extended into the 1990s and beyond with the overall objective of
ensuring the assessment and forecasting of the quantity and
quality of water resources, in order to estimate the total
quantity of water resources available and their future supply
potential, to determine their current quality status, to predict
possible conflicts between supply and demand and to provide a
scientific database for rational water resources utilization.
18.25. Five
specific objectives have been set accordingly, as follows:
- To make
available to all countries water resources assessment
technology that is appropriate to their needs, irrespective
of their level of development, including methods for the
impact assessment of climate change on freshwaters;
- To have all
countries, according to their financial means, allocate to
water resources assessment financial resources in line with
the economic and social needs for water resources data;
- To ensure that
the assessment information is fully utilized in the
development of water management policies;
- To have all
countries establish the institutional arrangements needed to
ensure the efficient collection, processing, storage,
retrieval and dissemination to users of information about
the quality and quantity of available water resources at the
level of catchments and groundwater aquifers in an
integrated manner;
- To have
sufficient numbers of appropriately qualified and capable
staff recruited and retained by water resources assessment
agencies and provided with the training and retraining they
will need to carry out their responsibilities successfully.
18.26. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including cooperation
with the United Nations and other relevant organizations, as
appropriate, could set the following targets:
- By the year
2000, to have studied in detail the feasibility of
installing water resources assessment services;
- As a long-term
target, to have fully operational services available based
upon high-density hydrometric networks.
Activities
18.27. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
undertake the following activities:
- Institutional
framework:
- Establish
appropriate policy frameworks and national priorities;
- Establish
and strengthen the institutional capabilities of
countries, including legislative and regulatory
arrangements, that are required to ensure the adequate
assessment of their water resources and the provision of
flood and drought forecasting services;
- Establish
and maintain effective cooperation at the national level
between the various agencies responsible for the
collection, storage and analysis of hydrologic data;
- Cooperate in
the assessment of transboundary water resources, subject
to the prior agreement of each riparian State concerned;
- Data systems:
- Review
existing data-collection networks and assess their
adequacy, including those that provide real-time data for
flood and drought forecasting;
- Improve
networks to meet accepted guidelines for the provision of
data on water quantity and quality for surface and
groundwater, as well as relevant land-use data;
- Apply
standards and other means to ensure data compatibility;
- Upgrade
facilities and procedures used to store, process and
analyse hydrologic data and make such data and the
forecasts derived from them available to potential users;
- Establish
databases on the availability of all types of hydrologic
data at the national level;
- Implement
"data rescue" operations, for example, establishment of
national archives of water resources;
- Implement
appropriate well-tried techniques for the processing of
hydrologic data;
- Derive
area-related estimates from point hydrologic data;
- Assimilate
remotely sensed data and the use, where appropriate, of
geographical information systems;
- Data
dissemination:
- Identify the
need for water resources data for various planning
purposes;
- Analyse and
present data and information on water resources in the
forms required for planning and management of countries'
socio-economic development and for use in environmental
protection strategies and in the design and operation of
specific water-related projects;
- Provide
forecasts and warnings of flood and drought to the general
public and civil defence;
- Research and
development:
- Establish or
strengthen research and development programmes at the
national, subregional, regional and international levels
in support of water resources assessment activities;
- Monitor
research and development activities to ensure that they
make full use of local expertise and other local resources
and that they are appropriate for the needs of the country
or countries concerned.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and
cost evaluation
18.28. The
Conference secretariat has estimated the everage total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $355 million, including about $145 million
from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and
have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and
technological means
18.29. Important
research needs include (a) development of global hydrologic
models in support of analysis of climate change impact and of
macroscale water resources assessment; (b) closing of the gap
between terrestrial hydrology and ecology at different scales,
including the critical water-related processes behind loss of
vegetation and land degradation and its restoration; and (c)
study of the key processes in water-quality genesis, closing the
gap between hydrologic flows and biogeochemical processes. The
research models should build upon hydrologic balance studies and
also include the consumptive use of water. This approach should
also, when appropriate, be applied at the catchment level.
18.30. Water
resources assessment necessitates the strengthening of existing
systems for technology transfer, adaptation and diffusion, and
the development of new technology for use under field
conditions, as well as the development of endogenous capacity.
Prior to inaugurating the above activities, it is necessary to
prepare catalogues of the water resources information held by
government services, the private sector, educational institutes,
consultants, local water-use organizations and others.
(c) Human resource
development
18.31. Water
resources assessment requires the establishment and maintenance
of a body of well-trained and motivated staff sufficient in
number to undertake the above activities. Education and training
programmes designed to ensure an adequate supply of these
trained personnel should be established or strengthened at the
local, national, subregional or regional level. In addition, the
provision of attractive terms of employment and career paths for
professional and technical staff should be encouraged. Human
resource needs should be monitored periodically, including all
levels of employment. Plans have to be established to meet those
needs through education and training opportunities and
international programmes of courses and conferences.
18.32. Because
well-trained people are particularly important to water
resources assessment and hydrologic forecasting, personnel
matters should receive special attention in this area. The aim
should be to attract and retain personnel to work on water
resources assessment who are sufficient in number and adequate
in their level of education to ensure the effective
implementation of the activities that are planned. Education may
be called for at both the national and the international level,
with adequate terms of employment being a national
responsibility.
18.33. Recommended
actions include:
- Identifying
education and training needs geared to the specific
requirements of countries;
- Establishing
and strengthening education and training programmes on
water-related topics, within an environmental and
developmental context, for all categories of staff involved
in water resources assessment activities, using advanced
educational technology, where appropriate, and involving
both men and women;
- Developing
sound recruitment, personnel and pay policies for staff of
national and local water agencies.
(d)
Capacity-building
18.34. The conduct
of water resources assessment on the basis of operational
national hydrometric networks requires an enabling environment
at all levels. The following national support action is
necessary for enhanced national capacities:
- Review of the
legislative and regulatory basis of water resources
assessment;
- Facilitation
of close collaboration among water sector agencies,
particularly between information producers and users;
- Implementation
of water management policies based upon realistic appraisals
of water resources conditions and trends;
- Strengthening
of the managerial capabilities of water-user groups,
including women, youth, indigenous people and local
communities, to improve water-use efficiency at the local
level.
C.
Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic
ecosystems
Basis for action
18.35. Freshwater
is a unitary resource. Long-term development of global
freshwater requires holistic management of resources and a
recognition of the interconnectedness of the elements related to
freshwater and freshwater quality. There are few regions of the
world that are still exempt from problems of loss of potential
sources of freshwater supply, degraded water quality and
pollution of surface and groundwater sources. Major problems
affecting the water quality of rivers and lakes arise, in
variable order of importance according to different situations,
from inadequately treated domestic sewage, inadequate controls
on the discharges of industrial waste waters, loss and
destruction of catchment areas, ill-considered siting of
industrial plants, deforestation, uncontrolled shifting
cultivation and poor agricultural practices. This gives rise to
the leaching of nutrients and pesticides. Aquatic ecosystems are
disturbed and living freshwater resources are threatened. Under
certain circumstances, aquatic ecosystems are also affected by
agricultural water resource development projects such as dams,
river diversions, water installations and irrigation schemes.
Erosion, sedimentation, deforestation and desertification have
led to increased land degradation, and the creation of
reservoirs has, in some cases, resulted in adverse effects on
ecosystems. Many of these problems have arisen from a
development model that is environmentally destructive and from a
lack of public awareness and education about surface and
groundwater resource protection. Ecological and human health
effects are the measurable consequences, although the means to
monitor them are inadequate or non-existent in many countries.
There is a widespread lack of perception of the linkages between
the development, management, use and treatment of water
resources and aquatic ecosystems. A preventive approach, where
appropriate, is crucial to the avoiding of costly subsequent
measures to rehabilitate, treat and develop new water supplies.
Objectives
18.36. The complex
interconnectedness of freshwater systems demands that freshwater
management be holistic (taking a catchment management approach)
and based on a balanced consideration of the needs of people and
the environment. The Mar del Plata Action Plan has already
recognized the intrinsic linkage between water resource
development projects and their significant physical, chemical,
biological, health and socio-economic repercussions. The overall
environmental health objective was set as follows: "to evaluate
the consequences which the various users of water have on the
environment, to support measures aimed at controlling
water-related diseases, and to protect ecosystems". 1/
18.37. The extent
and severity of contamination of unsaturated zones and aquifers
have long been underestimated owing to the relative
inaccessibility of aquifers and the lack of reliable information
on aquifer systems. The protection of groundwater is therefore
an essential element of water resource management.
18.38. Three
objectives will have to be pursued concurrently to integrate
water-quality elements into water resource management:
- Maintenance of
ecosystem integrity, according to a management principle of
preserving aquatic ecosystems, including living resources,
and of effectively protecting them from any form of
degradation on a drainage basin basis;
- Public health
protection, a task requiring not only the provision of safe
drinking-water but also the control of disease vectors in
the aquatic environment;
- Human
resources development, a key to capacity-building and a
prerequisite for implementing water-quality management.
18.39. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
set the following targets:
- To identify
the surface and groundwater resources that could be
developed for use on a sustainable basis and other major
developable water-dependent resources and, simultaneously,
to initiate programmes for the protection, conservation and
rational use of these resources on a sustainable basis;
- To identify
all potential sources of water-supply and prepared outlines
for their protection, conservation and rational use;
- To initiate
effective water pollution prevention and control programmes,
based on an appropriate mixture of pollution
reduction-at-source strategies, environmental impact
assessments and enforceable standards for major point-source
discharges and high-risk non-point sources, commensurate
with their socio-economic development;
- To
participate, as far as appropriate, in international
water-quality monitoring and management programmes such as
the Global Water Quality Monitoring Programme (GEMS/WATER),
the UNEP Environmentally Sound Management of Inland Waters (EMINWA),
the FAO regional inland fishery bodies, and the Convention
on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention);
- To reduce the
prevalence of water-associated diseases, starting with the
eradication of dracunculiasis (guinea worm disease) and
onchocerciasis (river blindness) by the year 2000;
- To establish,
according to capacities and needs, biological, health,
physical and chemical quality criteria for all water bodies
(surface and groundwater), with a view to an ongoing
improvement of water quality;
- To adopt an
integrated approach to environmentally sustainable
management of water resources, including the protection of
aquatic ecosystems and freshwater living resources;
- To put in
place strategies for the environmentally sound management of
freshwaters and related coastal ecosystems, including
consideration of fisheries, aquaculture, animal grazing,
agricultural activities and biodiversity.
Activities
18.40. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including United Nations
and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement
the following activities:
- Water
resources protection and conservation:
-
Establishment and strengthening of technical and
institutional capacities to identify and protect potential
sources of water-supply within all sectors of society;
-
Identification of potential sources of water-supply and
preparation of national profiles;
- Preparation
of national plans for water resources protection and
conservation;
-
Rehabilitation of important, but degraded, catchment
areas, particularly on small islands;
-
Strengthening of administrative and legislative measures
to prevent encroachment on existing and potentially usable
catchment areas;
- Water
pollution prevention and control:
- Application
of the "polluter pays" principle, where appropriate, to
all kinds of sources, including on-site and off-site
sanitation;
- Promotion of
the construction of treatment facilities for domestic
sewage and industrial effluents and the development of
appropriate technologies, taking into account sound
traditional and indigenous practices;
-
Establishment of standards for the discharge of effluents
and for the receiving waters;
- Introduction
of the precautionary approach in water-quality management,
where appropriate, with a focus on pollution minimization
and prevention through use of new technologies, product
and process change, pollution reduction at source and
effluent reuse, recycling and recovery, treatment and
environmentally safe disposal;
- Mandatory
environmental impact assessment of all major water
resource development projects potentially impairing water
quality and aquatic ecosystems, combined with the
delineation of appropriate remedial measures and a
strengthened control of new industrial installations,
solid waste landfills and infrastructure development
projects;
- Use of risk
assessment and risk management in reaching decisions in
this area and ensuring compliance with those decisions;
-
Identification and application of best environmental
practices at reasonable cost to avoid diffuse pollution,
namely, through a limited, rational and planned use of
nitrogenous fertilizers and other agrochemicals
(pesticides, herbicides) in agricultural practices;
-
Encouragement and promotion of the use of adequately
treated and purified waste waters in agriculture,
aquaculture, industry and other sectors;
- Development
and application of clean technology:
- Control of
industrial waste discharges, including low-waste
production technologies and water recirculation, in an
integrated manner and through application of precautionary
measures derived from a broad-based life-cycle analysis;
- Treatment of
municipal waste water for safe reuse in agriculture and
aquaculture;
- Development
of biotechnology, inter alia, for waste treatment,
production of biofertilizers and other activities;
- Development
of appropriate methods for water pollution control, taking
into account sound traditional and indigenous practices;
- Groundwater
protection:
- Development
of agricultural practices that do not degrade groundwaters;
- Application
of the necessary measures to mitigate saline intrusion
into aquifers of small islands and coastal plains as a
consequence of sealevel rise or overexploitation of
coastal aquifers;
- Prevention
of aquifer pollution through the regulation of toxic
substances that permeate the ground and the establishment
of protection zones in groundwater recharge and
abstraction areas;
- Design and
management of landfills based upon sound hydrogeologic
information and impact assessment, using the best
practicable and best available technology;
- Promotion of
measures to improve the safety and integrity of wells and
well-head areas to reduce intrusion of biological
pathogens and hazardous chemicals into aquifers at well
sites;
-
Water-quality monitoring, as needed, of surface and
groundwaters potentially affected by sites storing toxic
and hazardous materials;
- Protection of
aquatic ecosystems:
-
Rehabilitation of polluted and degraded water bodies to
restore aquatic habitats and ecosystems;
-
Rehabilitation programmes for agricultural lands and for
other users, taking into account equivalent action for the
protection and use of groundwater resources important for
agricultural productivity and for the biodiversity of the
tropics;
- Conservation
and protection of wetlands (owing to their ecological and
habitat importance for many species), taking into account
social and economic factors;
- Control of
noxious aquatic species that may destroy some other water
species;
- Protection of
freshwater living resources:
- Control and
monitoring of water quality to allow for the sustainable
development of inland fisheries;
- Protection
of ecosystems from pollution and degradation for the
development of freshwater aquaculture projects;
- Monitoring and
surveillance of water resources and waters receiving wastes:
-
Establishment of networks for the monitoring and
continuous surveillance of waters receiving wastes and of
point and diffuse sources of pollution;
- Promotion
and extension of the application of environmental impact
assessments of geographical information systems;
- Surveillance
of pollution sources to improve compliance with standards
and regulations and to regulate the issue of discharge
permits;
- Monitoring
of the utilization of chemicals in agriculture that may
have an adverse environmental effect;
- Rational
land use to prevent land degradation, erosion and
siltation of lakes and other water bodies;
- Development of
national and international legal instruments that may be
required to protect the quality of water resources, as
appropriate, particularly for:
- Monitoring
and control of pollution and its effects in national and
transboundary waters;
- Control of
long-range atmospheric transport of pollutants;
- Control of
accidental and/or deliberate spills in national and/or
transboundary water bodies;
-
Environmental impact assessment.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and
cost evaluation
18.41. The
Conference secretariat has estimated the average total cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $1 billion, including about $340 million from the
international community on grant or concessional terms. These
are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have
not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and
technological means
18.42. States
should undertake cooperative research projects to develop
solutions to technical problems that are appropriate for the
conditions in each watershed or country. States should consider
strengthening and developing national research centres linked
through networks and supported by regional water research
institutes. The North-South twinning of research centres and
field studies by international water research institutions
should be actively promoted. It is important that a minimum
percentage of funds for water resource development projects is
allocated to research and development, particularly in
externally funded projects.
18.43. Monitoring
and assessment of complex aquatic systems often require
multidisciplinary studies involving several institutions and
scientists in a joint programme. International water-quality
programmes, such as GEMS/WATER, should be oriented towards the
water-quality of developing countries. User-friendly software
and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Global Resource
Information Database (GRID) methods should be developed for the
handling, analysis and interpretation of monitoring data and for
the preparation of management strategies.
(c) Human resource
development
18.44. Innovative
approaches should be adopted for professional and managerial
staff training in order to cope with changing needs and
challenges. Flexibility and adaptability regarding emerging
water pollution issues should be developed. Training activities
should be undertaken periodically at all levels within the
organizations responsible for water-quality management and
innovative teaching techniques adopted for specific aspects of
water-quality monitoring and control, including development of
training skills, in-service training, problem-solving workshops
and refresher training courses.
18.45. Suitable
approaches include the strengthening and improvement of the
human resource capabilities of local Governments in managing
water protection, treatment and use, particularly in urban
areas, and the establishment of national and regional technical
and engineering courses on the subjects of water-quality
protection and control at existing schools and
education/training courses on water resources protection and
conservation for laboratory and field technicians, women and
other water-user groups.
(d)
Capacity-building
18.46. The
effective protection of water resources and ecosystems from
pollution requires considerable upgrading of most countries'
present capacities. Water-quality management programmes require
a certain minimum infrastructure and staff to identify and
implement technical solutions and to enforce regulatory action.
One of the key problems today and for the future is the
sustained operation and maintenance of these facilities. In
order not to allow resources gained from previous investments to
deteriorate further, immediate action is required in a number of
areas.
D.
Drinking-water supply and sanitation
Basis for action
18.47. Safe
water-supplies and environmental sanitation are vital for
protecting the environment, improving health and alleviating
poverty. Safe water is also crucial to many traditional and
cultural activities. An estimated 80 per cent of all diseases
and over one third of deaths in developing countries are caused
by the consumption of contaminated water, and on average as much
as one tenth of each person's productive time is sacrificed to
water-related diseases. Concerted efforts during the 1980s
brought water and sanitation services to hundreds of millions of
the world's poorest people. The most outstanding of these
efforts was the launching in 1981 of the International Drinking
Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, which resulted from the Mar
del Plata Action Plan adopted by the United Nations Water
Conference in 1977. The commonly agreed premise was that "all
peoples, whatever their stage of development and their social
and economic conditions, have the right to have access to
drinking water in quantities and of a quality equal to their
basic needs". 2/ The target of the Decade was to provide safe
drinking-water and sanitation to underserved urban and rural
areas by 1990, but even the unprecedented progress achieved
during the Decade was not enough. One in three people in the
developing world still lacks these two most basic requirements
for health and dignity. It is also recognized that human excreta
and sewage are important causes of the deterioration of
water-quality in developing countries, and the introduction of
available technologies, including appropriate technologies, and
the construction of sewage treatment facilities could bring
significant improvement.
Objectives
18.48. The New
Delhi Statement (adopted at the Global Consultation on Safe
Water and Sanitation for the 1990s, which was held in New Delhi
from 10 to 14 September 1990) formalized the need to provide, on
a sustainable basis, access to safe water in sufficient
quantities and proper sanitation for all, emphasizing the "some
for all rather than more for some" approach. Four guiding
principles provide for the programme objectives:
- Protection of
the environment and safeguarding of health through the
integrated management of water resources and liquid and
solid wastes;
- Institutional
reforms promoting an integrated approach and including
changes in procedures, attitudes and behaviour, and the full
participation of women at all levels in sector institutions;
- Community
management of services, backed by measures to strengthen
local institutions in implementing and sustaining water and
sanitation programmes;
- Sound
financial practices, achieved through better management of
existing assets, and widespread use of appropriate
technologies.
18.49. Past
experience has shown that specific targets should be set by each
individual country. At the World Summit for Children, in
September 1990, heads of State or Government called for both
universal access to water-supply and sanitation and the
eradication of guinea worm disease by 1995. Even for the more
realistic target of achieving full coverage in water-supply by
2025, it is estimated that annual investments must reach double
the current levels. One realistic strategy to meet present and
future needs, therefore, is to develop lower-cost but adequate
services that can be implemented and sustained at the community
level.
Activities
18.50. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
implement the following activities:
- Environment
and health:
-
Establishment of protected areas for sources of
drinking-water supply;
- Sanitary
disposal of excreta and sewage, using appropriate systems
to treat waste waters in urban and rural areas;
- Expansion of
urban and rural water-supply and development and expansion
of rainwater catchment systems, particularly on small
islands, in addition to the reticulated water-supply
system;
- Building and
expansion, where appropriate, of sewage treatment
facilities and drainage systems;
- Treatment
and safe reuse of domestic and industrial waste waters in
urban and rural areas;
- Control of
water-associated diseases;
- People and
institutions:
-
Strengthening of the functioning of Governments in water
resources management and, at the same time, giving of full
recognition to the role of local authorities;
-
Encouragement of water development and management based on
a participatory approach, involving users, planners and
policy makers at all levels;
- Application
of the principle that decisions are to be taken at the
lowest appropriate level, with public consultation and
involvement of users in the planning and implementation of
water projects;
- Human
resource development at all levels, including special
programmes for women;
- Broad-based
education programmes, with particular emphasis on hygiene,
local management and risk reduction;
-
International support mechanisms for programme funding,
implementation and follow-up;
- National and
community management:
- Support and
assistance to communities in managing their own systems on
a sustainable basis;
-
Encouragement of the local population, especially women,
youth, indigenous people and local communities, in water
management;
- Linkages
between national water plans and community management of
local waters;
- Integration
of community management of water within the context of
overall planning;
- Promotion of
primary health and environmental care at the local level,
including training for local communities in appropriate
water management techniques and primary health care;
- Assistance
to service agencies in becoming more cost-effective and
responsive to consumer needs;
- Providing of
more attention to underserved rural and low-income
periurban areas;
-
Rehabilitation of defective systems, reduction of wastage
and safe reuse of water and waste water;
- Programmes
for rational water use and ensured operation and
maintenance;
- Research and
development of appropriate technical solutions;
-
Substantially increase urban treatment capacity
commensurate with increasing loads;
- Awareness
creation and public information/participation:
-
Strengthening of sector monitoring and information
management at subnational and national levels;
- Annual
processing, analysis and publication of monitoring results
at national and local levels as a sector management and
advocacy/awareness creation tool;
- Use of
limited sector indicators at regional and global levels to
promote the sector and raise funds;
- Improvement
of sector coordination, planning and implementation, with
the assistance of improved monitoring and information
management, to increase the sector's absorptive capacity,
particularly in community-based self-help projects.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and
cost evaluation
18.51. The
Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $20 billion, including about $7.4 billion
from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and
have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and
technological means
18.52. To ensure
the feasibility, acceptability and sustainability of planned
water-supply services, adopted technologies should be responsive
to the needs and constraints imposed by the conditions of the
community concerned. Thus, design criteria will involve
technical, health, social, economic, provincial, institutional
and environmental factors that determine the characteristics,
magnitude and cost of the planned system. Relevant international
support programmes should address the developing countries
concerning, inter alia:
- Pursuit of
low-cost scientific and technological means, as far as
practicable;
- Utilization of
traditional and indigenous practices, as far as practicable,
to maximize and sustain local involvement;
- Assistance to
country-level technical/scientific institutes to facilitate
curricula development to support fields critical to the water
and sanitation sector.
(c) Human resource
development
18.53. To
effectively plan and manage water-supply and sanitation at the
national, provincial, district and community level, and to
utilize funds most effectively, trained professional and
technical staff must be developed within each country in
sufficient numbers. To do this, countries must establish
manpower development plans, taking into consideration present
requirements and planned developments. Subsequently, the
development and performance of country-level training
institutions should be enhanced so that they can play a pivotal
role in capacity-building. It is also important that countries
provide adequate training for women in the sustainable
maintenance of equipment, water resources management and
environmental sanitation.
(d)
Capacity-building
18.54. The
implementation of water-supply and sanitation programmes is a
national responsibility. To varying degrees, responsibility for
the implementation of projects and the operating of systems
should be delegated to all administrative levels down to the
community and individual served. This also means that national
authorities, together with the agencies and bodies of the United
Nations system and other external support agencies providing
support to national programmes, should develop mechanisms and
procedures to collaborate at all levels. This is particularly
important if full advantage is to be taken of community-based
approaches and self-reliance as tools for sustainability. This
will entail a high degree of community participation, involving
women, in the conception, planning, decision-making,
implementation and evaluation connected with projects for
domestic water-supply and sanitation.
18.55. Overall
national capacity-building at all administrative levels,
involving institutional development, coordination, human
resources, community participation, health and hygiene education
and literacy, has to be developed according to its fundamental
connection both with any efforts to improve health and
socio-economic development through water-supply and sanitation
and with their impact on the human environment.
Capacity-building should therefore be one of the underlying keys
in implementation strategies. Institutional capacity-building
should be considered to have an importance equal to that of the
sector supplies and equipment component so that funds can be
directed to both. This can be undertaken at the planning or
programme/project formulation stage, accompanied by a clear
definition of objectives and targets. In this regard, technical
cooperation among developing countries owing to their available
wealth of information and experience and the need to avoid
"reinventing the wheel", is crucial. Such a course has proved
cost-effective in many country projects already.
E.
Water and sustainable urban development
Basis for action
18.56. Early in the
next century, more than half of the world's population will be
living in urban areas. By the year 2025, that proportion will
have risen to 60 per cent, comprising some 5 billion people.
Rapid urban population growth and industrialization are putting
severe strains on the water resources and environmental
protection capabilities of many cities. Special attention needs
to be given to the growing effects of urbanization on water
demands and usage and to the critical role played by local and
municipal authorities in managing the supply, use and overall
treatment of water, particularly in developing countries for
which special support is needed. Scarcity of freshwater
resources and the escalating costs of developing new resources
have a considerable impact on national industrial, agricultural
and human settlement development and economic growth. Better
management of urban water resources, including the elimination
of unsustainable consumption patterns, can make a substantial
contribution to the alleviation of poverty and improvement of
the health and quality of life of the urban and rural poor. A
high proportion of large urban agglomerations are located around
estuaries and in coastal zones. Such an arrangement leads to
pollution from municipal and industrial discharges combined with
overexploitation of available water resources and threatens the
marine environment and the supply of freshwater resources.
Objectives
18.57. The
development objective of this programme is to support local and
central Governments' efforts and capacities to sustain national
development and productivity through environmentally sound
management of water resources for urban use. Supporting this
objective is the identification and implementation of strategies
and actions to ensure the continued supply of affordable water
for present and future needs and to reverse current trends of
resource degradation and depletion.
18.58. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
set the following targets:
- By the year
2000, to have ensured that all urban residents have access
to at least 40 litres per capita per day of safe water and
that 75 per cent of the urban population are provided with
on-site or community facilities for sanitation;
- By the year
2000, to have established and applied quantitative and
qualitative discharge standards for municipal and industrial
effluents;
- By the year
2000, to have ensured that 75 per cent of solid waste
generated in urban areas are collected and recycled or
disposed of in an environmentally safe way.
Activities
18.59. All States,
according to their capacity and available resources, and through
bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United
Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
implement the following activities:
- Protection of
water resources from depletion, pollution and degradation:
- Introduction
of sanitary waste disposal facilities based on
environmentally sound low-cost and upgradable
technologies;
-
Implementation of urban storm-water run-off and drainage
programmes;
- Promotion of
recycling and reuse of waste water and solid wastes;
- Control of
industrial pollution sources to protect water resources;
- Protection
of watersheds with respect to depletion and degradation of
their forest cover and from harmful upstream activities;
- Promotion of
research into the contribution of forests to sustainable
water resources development;
-
Encouragement of the best management practices for the use
of agrochemicals with a view to minimizing their impact on
water resources;
- Efficient and
equitable allocation of water resources:
-
Reconciliation of city development planning with the
availability and sustainability of water resources;
- Satisfaction
of the basic water needs of the urban population;
- Introduction
of water tariffs, taking into account the circumstances in
each country and where affordable, that reflect the
marginal and opportunity cost of water, especially for
productive activities;
-
Institutional/legal/management reforms:
- Adoption of
a city-wide approach to the management of water resources;
- Promotion at
the national and local level of the elaboration of
land-use plans that give due consideration to water
resources development;
- Utilization
of the skills and potential of non-governmental
organizations, the private sector and local people, taking
into account the public's and strategic interests in water
resources;
- Promotion of
public participation:
- Initiation
of public-awareness campaigns to encourage the public's
move towards rational water utilization;
-
Sensitization of the public to the issue of protecting
water quality within the urban environment;
- Promotion of
public participation in the collection, recycling and
elimination of wastes;
- Support to
local capacity-building:
- Development
of legislation and policies to promote investments in
urban water and waste management, reflecting the major
contribution of cities to national economic development;
- Provision of
seed money and technical support to the local handling of
materials supply and services;
-
Encouragement, to the extent possible, of autonomy and
financial viability of city water, solid waste and
sewerage utilities;
- Creation and
maintenance of a cadre of professionals and
semi-professionals, for water, waste-water and solid waste
management;
- Provision of
enhanced access to sanitary services:
-
Implementation of water, sanitation and waste management
programmes focused on the urban poor;
- Making
available of low-cost water-supply and sanitation
technology choices;
- Basing of
choice of technology and service levels on user
preferences and willingness to pay;
- Mobilization
and facilitation of the active involvement of women in
water management teams;
-
Encouragement and equipment of local water associations
and water committees to manage community water-supply
systems and communal latrines, with technical back-up
available when required;
-
Consideration of the merits and practicality of
rehabilitating existing malfunctioning systems and of
correcting operation and maintenance inadequacies.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and
cost evaluation
18.60. The
Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual
cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this
programme to be about $20 billion, including about $4.5 billion
from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and
have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will
depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific |
